Language Teaching of English as a Second Language

I.              INTRODUCTION

Language acquisition of human being begins from their existence. In learning of first language / mother tongue, most or even all people learn and figure out the language acquisition without any learning process. The acquisition / learning hypothesis said that:

Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication. Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language developed. (Jack: 131)

Formal teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules. In accordance of research and experience, language learning as a second language is rather difficult. Term of learning such as Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is used to teach as second language. The process of learning tend to emerge the elements; teacher, language learning, methodology and material to improve the achievement.

The most important role in the language learning as a second language is learners; there must be learners not teachers. Therefore it implies the philosophy of teaching and education that as named student oriented or student centered.

II.            ANALYSIS

A.      Teaching Strategy

Those of us who teach English as a second language today are faced with essentially the same problem. We are aware of variety in language usage, and we want to teach the most effective or most useful variants to our students. The most important function of the teacher in a second language classroom: to supply a model and to provide guidance for the students.

B.     Learning Strategy

The affective filter hypothesis that is built on research is second language acquisition, which has identified three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to second language acquisition:

1.      Motivation, learners with high motivation generally do better,

2.      Self – confidence, learners with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to be more successful,

3.      Anxiety, low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conductive to second language acquisition.

(Jack 1986: 133)

C.     Language Learning

1.      GBPP of English Curriculum 1984

Linguistic is defined as “using language to communicate”, that is conveying the message or definition from one to another.  GBPP 1984 emphasizes the alternation from stressing the structure of language into usage of language. The intention is to achieve communicative skill through learning process based on discourse and communicative function of language.

Syllabus as curriculum 1984 is multi centered, thus the dialogue and reading material are not used anymore to convey grammar and structure. And the components of syllabus; structure, reading, vocabulary, dialogue, writing, pronunciation, spelling, are used as experience of learning of English, enhance the knowledge and improve the skill of learner and English.

2.      Curriculum Base Competence (CBC)

The intention of CBC is achievement of competence itself. Therefore the approach, method and teaching strategy belong to the stakeholder of learning process along with the capacity and resources they have.

This Learning tends to retain competence achievement that showed in students’ skill (Competence standard, Cognitive point of view, Psychomotor, Affective / attitude) and participation in the learning process.

D.     Methodology

1.      Communicative Language Teaching

Its language teaching focuses on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures, the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately. The individual often through trial and error creates language. Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writing. The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.

2.      Silent Way

The silent way shares a great deal with other learning theories and educational philosophies. Very broadly put, the learning hypothesis underlying Gattegno’s work could be stated as follows:

Ø      Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned,

Ø      Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical object,

Ø      Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned

Successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and active trial.

Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility. Independent learners are those who are that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can take their knowledge of the first few words in the new language and figure out additional words by using that knowledge.

3.      Community Language Learning (CLL)

CLL technique belongs to a larger set of foreign language teaching practices sometime described as humanistic techniques (Moskowitz: 1978). In sum, humanistic techniques engage the whole person, including the emotions and feeling (the affective realm) as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioral skill.

La Forge (1983) begins by suggesting that language, as social process is different from language as communication.

Language as communication: Sender à message à receiver

Language as social process: Sender à message à receiver

CLL advocates a holistic approach to language learning, since “true” human learning is both cognitive and affective. This is termed whole-person learning. Such learning takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and learners are involved in an interaction…in which both experience a sense of their own wholeness (Curran 1972: 90)

These central aspects of Curran’s learning philosophy address not the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in second language acquisition, but rather the personal commitment that learners need to make before language acquisition processes and operates.

III.          CONCLUSION

Learning refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language developed. Formal teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules. In accordance of research and experience, language learning as a second language is rather difficult. The process of learning tend to emerge the elements; teacher, language learning, methodology and material to improve the achievement.

The most important role in the language learning as a second language is learners, therefore it implies the philosophy of teaching and education that as named student oriented or student centered. The teachers supply a model and to provide guidance for the learners. Moreover, learners in order to achieve self-competence tend to consider; motivation, self – confidence and anxiety.

The relation of Student oriented with GBPP of English Curriculum 1984, Curriculum Base Competence (CBC), Communicative Language Teaching, Silent Way, and Community Language Learning (CLL) is clear-cut. The main purpose of those curriculums and methods is to encourage the learners to be more active and independent.

Independent learners are those who are that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can take their knowledge of the first few words in the new language and figure out additional words by using that knowledge.

 

IV.          REFERENCE

Allen Harold B. and Russell N. Campbell. 1965. Teaching English As A Second Language A Book Of Readings. New Delhi: TATA Mc.GRAW –HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY LTD.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2003. Kuriklum 2004 Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris SMA dan MA. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.

Nababan-Sri Utari Subyakto. 1993. Metodolgi Pengajaran Bahasa. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Purwo Bambang Kaswanti. Pragmatik dan Pengajaran Bahasa Menyibak Kurikulum 1984. Universitas Kaltolik Atmajaya: Kanisius

Richards Jack S. and Theodore S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Requirements in Preparing and Using Foreign Language Test

I.            Preface 

It is commonly felt that the word “testing” frighten both students and teachers. For the former, the students fear to be put to test because there is a possibility of failure. For the latter, the teachers have fear of statistics. They think that they will be involved in the statistical trap. Teachers also fear that they might be unable to make a fair judgment and appropriate tests in the available time.

One crucial way is for teachers to set the goals of teaching and describe them just in the beginning of teaching learning activity to the students.

II.         Analysis

There are four requirements to be considered when developing and judging formal foreign language tests.

1.   Validity

Test validity is the most crucial factor in the foreign language testing. A test is valid when it measures effectively what is intended to measure, whether it is be achievement, proficiency, or aptitude in the language. A test may be designed to measure the integrative abilities or discrete items within the subsystems of a language. But, for example, if a test is designed to measure reading comprehension, it must do exactly this and not attempt to measure another skill such as aural – oral comprehension. If a test is intended to measure one’s speaking skill, it is valid only if it tests his / her speaking ability.

In order to achieve validity, the test components and items must have a close relationship with what is tested. Two questions must be considered when determining test validity of a foreign language; what aspects of the language is the test design to measure, and how well does it measure?

The validity of a language test is determined by comparing the result it gives with some outside or independent criterion. Here are five validity concepts

a.      Content validity

Content validity is examined by checking all items in the test to make certain that they correspond to the instructional objectives of the course, whether they are be discrete or integrative language skill.

b.      Concurrent validity

A procedure for examining concurrent validity could follow the following pattern: a new language test is administered to students in the course and scores are recorded for each student.

c.      Predictive validity

Predictive validity is used extensively in the validation of language aptitude tests. It is determined by (a) administering the test to a group of prospective students, (b) following their progress in their language courses, (c) obtaining data about each of them, then (d) computing the correlation coefficient between the aptitude test scores and the criterion grades or data.

d.      Construct validity

Construct validity is less important in the achievement tests, but this validation should be extensively used in aptitude and proficiency test.

2.   Reliability

The reliability or consistency of a test is the degree to which the test can be trusted to produce the same results when the test is administrated at different time by an individual. It is different from validity in that it concerns about the dependability of a test, rather than whether it measures what is intended to measure. Thus, to be reliable a test must be consistent in giving a result over a period of time. If a test gives almost identical results or scores each time it is administered to the same group, we can say that the test is highly reliable. When it gives significantly different result, the test is unreliable.

There are several external factors affecting the reliability of a test; variations in testing conditions (lighting, temperature, noise, and other distractions); test compromise (i.e., the students knew the questions / answers before hand); inaccuracy in scoring; inadequate sampling of test items; lack of motivation; fatigue or illness. Those factors decrease the reliability of the test.

On the other hand, these factors can improve the reliability of a test; making the test conditions constant; using the same procedure in administering the test; increasing the number of test items; giving adequate sampling of test items; and reducing the subjective scoring.

A test which is reliable is not necessarily valid. A test intended to test the native English speakers for reading comprehension of the Indonesian language may give the same result when given to the native Indonesians, but will show low validity when used to measure the writing ability of English speakers. A language test may have both high reliability and low validity.

Increasing the length of a test will increase its reliability. For a multiple-choice test, the number of choices will influence its reliability. For a better examination of reliability, two methods should be used, one being a check against the other.

3.   Comprehensiveness

A test is comprehensive when it contains items from all aspects of the materials to be tested. An achievement test, for example, should contain all the objectives which should have been achieved by the time of testing. It is recommended that the number of items be in proportion to the importance of language being tested, or to the proportion of the problem areas of the students. For a phase test or end-of-semester test, approximately sixty questions can be considered the minimum number required to provide valid reliable scores. For a proficiency test used for screening purpose of for obtaining a comprehensive measure of the examinee’s mastery of language, the number of questions should be about twice as great, approximately 100 to 120 items.

It has been shown by experiments that when a test is too long, there are problems of administration, economy, and fatigue which destroy the test utility. On the other hand, a test which is too short gives problems of compromise, doubtful reliability, and lack of comprehensiveness.

In preparing a test, the examiner should make sure that the test items are representative, comprehensive, and related to the objectives of the course or to the purpose for which the test is intended.

4.   Practicality

Practicality is also as important factor in the design of a test, in addition in validity, reliability, and comprehensiveness. It is important when the test is used in large quantities for placement, selection, certification, or classroom use. The criteria for practicality are based on such factors as economy, scorability, and administrability.

III.         Conclusion

Those fear of students and teachers will removed when they open to a wider context of testing. The reason for making goals clear to the students is the fact that all teaching and learning activities are directed to and focused in the goals.

To make a fair judgment and appropriate tests, teachers should consider major qualities when developing a test; they are validity, reliability, comprehensiveness, and practicality.

Validity measures effectively what is intended to measure, whether it is be achievement, proficiency, or aptitude in the language. A test may be designed to measure the integrative abilities or discrete items within the subsystems of a language. When reliability of the test components and items must have a close relationship with what is tested. Thus, to be reliable a test must be consistent in giving a result over a period of time.

A test is comprehensive when it contains items from all aspects of the materials to be tested. An achievement test, for example, should contain all the objectives which should have been achieved by the time of testing. It is recommended that the number of items be in proportion to the importance of language being tested, or to the proportion of the problem areas of the students

In preparing a test, the examiner should make sure that the test items are representative, comprehensive, and related to the objectives of the course or to the purpose for which the test is intended.

Perbedaan Mengenai Metode Penelitian

Bias dalam penelitian metode penelitian telah mempengaruhi tingkat perkembangan dalam pembelajaran mengenai kepemimpinan yang efektif. Kepercayaan mengenai metode penelitian yang paling bermanfaat dan jenis informasi yang diperlukan untuk memahami proses kepemimpinan terkait dengan bias dalam pembuatan konsep tentang kepemimpinan, masalah utama meliputi:

1.      Peralatan / perlengkapan kuantitif, metode tes – hipotesis vs diskriptive, metode kualitatif.

2.      Perlengkapan survey vs studi experimental.

3.      Level analisa yang sesuai untuk data quantitative.

Metode Qualitative vs Quantitative

Kebanyankan penelitian quantitative tentang perilaku kepemimpinan menggunakan quesioner daripada bertanya kepada bawahan atau pengikut untuk mengukur seberapa sering atau seberapa banyak seorang pemimpin memunculkan perilaku-perilakunya selama periode beberapa bulan atau beberapa tahun. Bukti  bias pengukur dan koresponden yang rendah diantara orang-orang yang mengukur pemimpin yang sama memunculkan keraguan yang serius mengenai apa yang quesioner ukur sebenarnya. Kritik atas tipe penelitian ini berpendapat bahwa hal tersebut mempunyai bias yang tidak berhubungan terhadap sesuatu yang berlebihan mengenai pentingnya pemimpin. Bias ini konsisten dengan tekanan atas kepemimpinan kepahlawanan. Survey questioner sangat tidak cocok untuk study kepemimpinan sebagai sebuah proses yang dinamis dan berbagi yang ada dalam system social yang kompleks.

Beberapa metode qualitative muncul lebih sesuai untuk studi kepemimpinan dari sebuah system perspektif. Tetapi metode penelitian ini juga mempunyai beberapa keterbatasan (house, 1988a: Martinko & Gardner, 1985). Standar untuk aplikasi dan evaluasi metode kualitatif tidak tersirat seperti halnya metode qualitative tradisional, dan interpretasi berdasarkan metode qualitative kadang sangat subyektif.

Saat deskripsi tentang proses kepemimpinan diperoleh dari interview, perhitungannya mungkin bias karena ingatan yang selektif atas aspek perilaku yang tetap terhadap anggapan responden dan teori implisif mengenai kepemimpinan yang efektif. Observasi langsung juga dapat dicurigai untuk perhatian yang selektif dan bias interpretasi atas suatu peristiwa oleh para pengamat karena prasangka dan teori implisif.

Survey vs studi experimental

Masalah lain dalam mendesain penelitian kepemimpinan adalah manfaat relatif atas survey study dan pengalaman. Survey studi biasanya lebih mudah untuk dilaksanakan, tapi seperti ditulis diawal mereka mempunyai banyak keterbatasan saat digunakan untuk penelitian dalam proses kepemimpinan. Eksperimen di laboratorium dan seting lapangan adalah sesuai untuk banyak tipe penelitian kepemiminan. (Brown & Lord, 1999: Dipboye, 1990: Eefford, 1999). Sayangnya, metode penelitian ini jarang digunakan untuk mempelajari kepemimpinan eksperimen labaratorium & lapangan mendasari proporti kecil (kurang dari 5%) atas ribuan studi yang telah dilakukan tentang kepemimpinan selama 5 abad yang lalu.

Manfaat terpenting eksperimen adalah kesempatan untuk menentukan kausalitas. Peneliti dapat memanipulasi perilaku pemimpin atau variable situasional dan menilai kemandirian mereka dan efek gabungan. Lebih lagi, dengan eksperimen labaratorium, lebih mudah untuk mengukur proses mediasi, mengontrol variable tambahan, dan memeriksa efek kondisi yang jarang ditemukan dalam organisasi yang sesungguhnya. Eksperimen laboratorium tentang kepemimpinan sepertinya menjadi lebih bermanfaat jika berdasarkan model yang dispesifikasi dengan baik, dilakukan dalam interval waktu yang masuk akal, sample yang sesuai. Terdapat simulasi realistis tentang kondisi pekerjaan, dan manipulasi experimental diujikan untuk menyakinkan bahwa mereka efektif.

Eksperimen lapangan lebih sulit untuk dilaksanakan daripada eksperimen laboratorium, tetapi mereka memberikan manfaat lebih. Kebanyakan eksperimen lapangan meliputi kondisi nyata dan sample berpengalaman, dan mereka membiarkan penilaian yang lebih baik atas intervensi untuk mewujudkan kepemimpinan (contoh: training). Eksperimen lapangan tentang kepemimpinan sepertinya menjadi lebih bermanfaat jika didasarkan pada model yang dispesifikasi dengan baik, dilakukan dalam periode waktu yang sesuai, dan meliputi bermacam pengukuran atas variable yang relevan.

Level analisis

Tipe analisis yang sesuai tergantung pada dasar teori proses kepemimpinan dan level pengukuran dan level konsep teori. (Klein. et. al. 1994). Jika level analisis yang tidak sesuai digunakan, hasil dari study mungkin akan disalahtafsirkan.

Kebanyakan penelitian survey tentang perilaku kepemimpinan telah menggunakan sebuah individu, dyadic atau kelompok individual biasanya meliputi hubungan antara pengukuran yang ada oleh individu yang sama. Analisis dyadic biasanya meliputi data yang diperoleh dari kedua anggota pemimpin dan bawahan, contoh hubungan penilaian bawahan atas perilaku pimpinan dengan penilaian pimpinan atas penampilan bawahan. Analisis level kelompok biasanya meliputi data individu yang terakumulasi terhadap level group. Variable level group jarang diukur hanya pada level grup, jika tidak tujuan pengukuran yang  tersedia (e.q. ukuran group, penampilan, tingkat sebaliknya).

Terdapat manfaat dan kekurangan untuk setiap level analisis. Akumulasi  penilaian pemimpin dari beberapa bawahan dapat menurunkan efek persepsi random yang bias dan membuat penilaian gabungan lebih akurat. Bagaimanapun, jika perilaku pemimpin kepada bawahan tidaklah sama. Kemudian penilaian gabungan mungkin mengaburkan variasi-variasi dan memberi gambar distorsi atas pola perilaku pimpinan. Hanya jika penilaian gabungan dianalisis, lebih sulit untuk mendeteksi hubungan dyadic antara pimpinan kepada bawahan dan kepuasan atau motivasi bawahan itu. Jika efek delegasi dikonsep pada level dyadic (yang kelihatannya sesuai pada contoh ini), mempelajari bahwa hanya menggunakan analisis level group tidak akan memberi test teori yang cukup.

Saat semua data dalam suatu study dikumpulkan dari individu-individu, bermacam level analisis dapat digunakan untuk membandingkan penjelasan alternatif mengenai kepemimpinan. Dansereau, Alutto, dan Yammarino (1984) mengajukan sebuah metode (WABA) untuk menganalisa hasil pada level yang berbeda secara terkait. Metode tersebut telah digunakan dalam beberapa studi, dan hasilnya mengindikasikan bahwa susunan data mungkin mendukung kesimpulan yang bebeda mengenai kepemimpinan tergantung pada level analisis (contoh Dansereau, Yammarino, dan Markhan, 1995; Yammarino, 1990, Yammarino dan Bass, 1990). Metode WABA memberikan beberapa pemahaman yang unik, tetapi tidak mungkin saat beberapa data dikumpulkan hanya pada tingkat grup atau organisasi. Dan lagi, penapsiran hasil WABA rumit dengan kekurangan dalam kebanyakan quesioner kepemimpinan. Saat hasil dari tingkat analisis yang berbeda tidak tetap, kekurangan tersebut membuatnya lebih sulit untuk menentukan alasan. Usaha yang lebih diperlukan untuk meningkatkan akurasi quesioner kepemimpinan atau untuk menemukan yang lain, tipe pengukuran yang lebih akurat.

ESL ; The Theories to Improve English Learning Achievement

Abstract: 

English language is a foreign language that is studied by elementary up to College students. It is taught intensively and spent proportional time allotment in every meeting. Practically, the expected result has not yet shown significant improvement. Many factors causes the underestimated effort in studying English, especially the point of view that English is only a foreign language not a second language. This view assumes that English is not so important to be studied seriously because its benefit is less for their future.

Key Words: English Learning, Second language (L2), Achievement.

I. Introduction
Language is important for communication in this world. We need language to communicate each other. We learn language since we were child until we become man. Language is a system to communicate from one aspect to another aspects. Human has language and also the animals. Language is intimately tied to man’s felling and activity, it’s bound up with nationality, religion and the felling of self. It used for work, worship, etc.In linguistic Language is an arbitrary system of speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds which is can be used in interpersonal communication by an aggregation of human beings and rather exhaustively catalogs things, process and event in human environment. (Carrol 1953).

Learning is basic to human existence and fundamental to education. It is the base of operation for the study of psychology and to understand the human mind, indeed no other topic in psychology has been as thoroughly researched as that of learning.

Language acquisition of human being begins from their existence. In learning of first language / mother tongue, most or even all people learn and figure out the language acquisition without any learning process. The acquisition / learning hypothesis said that: Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication. Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language developed.

Formal teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules. In accordance with research and experience, language learning as a second language is rather difficult. Term of learning such as Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is used to teach as second language. The process of learning tend to emerge the elements; teacher, language learning, methodology and material to improve the achievement.

The most important role in the language learning as a second language is learners; there must be learners not teachers. Therefore it implies the philosophy of teaching and education that as named “student oriented or student centered.”

II. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
The acquisition-Learning Hypothesis claims that there are two independent ways of learning a second language: acquisition and learning. As discussed earlier that acquisition is the subconscious process generally used by children to develop their first language. It is a result of participation in natural communication in which the focus is on meaning or content. In storage, the acquired system is located in the left hemisphere part of the brain in the language areas. It is available for automatic processing. In performance, the acquired system serves as the major source for initiating both the comprehension and production of utterances. According to Krashen (1981:99) “fluency in second language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned”. Adult second language learners, therefore, should do as much acquisition as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency.

Learning is a conscious process, which results in a separate system of simple grammar rules, or knowledge about the second language. It occurs as a result of conscious study of the grammatical system of the language. Learned knowledge is also stored in the left hemisphere, but not necessarily in language areas. This knowledge (explicit knowledge) is used to control the processing of utterances. It edits or monitors the performance.

III. Language Learning
A. GBPP of English Curriculum 1984Linguistic is defined as “using language to communicate”, that is conveying the message or definition from one to another. GBPP 1984 emphasizes the alternation from stressing the structure of language into usage of language. The intention is to achieve communicative skill through learning process based on discourse and communicative function of language.

Syllabus as curriculum 1984 is multi centered, thus the dialogue and reading material are not used anymore to convey grammar and structure. And the components of syllabus; structure, reading, vocabulary, dialogue, writing, pronunciation, spelling, are used as experience of learning of English, enhance the knowledge and improve the skill of learner and English.

B. Curriculum Base Competence (CBC)

The intention of CBC is achievement of competence itself. Therefore the approach, method and teaching strategy belong to the stakeholder of learning process along with the capacity and resources they have.

This Learning tends to retain competence achievement that showed in students’ skill (Competence standard, Cognitive point of view, Psychomotor, Affective / attitude) and participation in the learning process.

IV. The Improvement Of English Achievement
A. Teaching StrategyThose of us who teach English as a second language today are faced with essentially the same problem. We are aware of variety in language usage, and we want to teach the most effective or most useful variants to our students. The most important function of the teacher in a second language classroom: to supply a model and to provide guidance for the students.

B. Learning Strategy

The affective filter hypothesis that is built on research is second language acquisition, which has identified three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to second language acquisition:
1. Motivation, learners with high motivation generally do better,
2. Self – confidence, learners with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to be more successful,
3. Anxiety, low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conductive to second language acquisition.

V. Closure
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a study of the process in which learners learn a second language. We, language practitioners, can take significant benefit from studying SLA. For one thing, we can gain insight of the way learning process of the learners takes place. With such insight we can modify and create different techniques of teaching learning process that can help learners acquire the target language. Understanding SLA is also beneficial for language learners. Their specific awareness to the way second language is acquired can facilitate their efforts in learning the target language. Their insight of SLA could strengthen and lead them to the correct path in mastering the language they are learning.

SLA aims at identifying how learners acquire a second language, what they really do when they try to accomplish the task. SLA also aims at identifying the external as well as internal factor, which influence the learners in acquiring the target language. External factors may include social environment as well as the language input itself. The internal factors may comprise the learner’s cognitive mechanism, the learner’s mother, and the learner’s learning strategies.

VI. References
Allen Harold B. and Russell N. Campbell. 1965. Teaching English As A Second Language A Book Of Readings. New Delhi: Tata Mc.Graw – Hill Publishing Company Ltd.
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2003. Kuriklum 2004 Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris SMA dan MA. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.
Lado, Robert. Language Teaching A Scientific Approach. Mew York: Mc, Graw Hill Inc.
Nababan-Sri Utari Subyakto. 1993. Metodolgi Pengajaran Bahasa. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Purwo Bambang Kaswanti. Pragmatik dan Pengajaran Bahasa Menyibak Kurikulum 1984. Universitas Kaltolik Atmajaya: Kanisius
Ramelan. 1984. Introduction to Linguistic. Semarang: IKIP Semarang,
Richards Jack S. and Theodore S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Strategy of Improving Listening Skill by Using Songs

I. Framework

Language cannot be separated from human life. It is one of means of communication to survive the life, people have build communication with each other. In communication, language is used to express ideas, feelings, experience, and knowledge whether in written or spoken form, formal or informal situation. Human being as a social and an individual person always communicate with each other. In communication with some one else, we need a certain medium that we call language.

Language it self can be divided into spoken and written language. In system language, sometimes we use this gesture, such as flashing eyes, moving the art of the body and other for expressing feeling and ideas. While in written language, language is the representation of the spoken one that is very helpful for communication. Crystal stated that the difference of structure and the use between written and spoken language are inevitable, because there are products of radically different kinds of communication situation.

There is a branch of arts, namely songs. The songs have the imaginative quality and specific characteristic of the language use such as: denotation, connotation and symbols. Every word in the songs have a power to person. Through that song, we can get trick and suggestion.


Songs have been part of the human experience for as long as we can remember. As Gugliemino (1986) stated, adults sing at religious services, bars, in the shower, and listening to the car radio. Songs have become an integral part of our language experience, and if used in coordination with a language lesson they can be of great value. Fortunately, with the expanding prevalence of the Internet and specifically the World Wide Web into both the classrooms and lives of students, access to music and lyrics has been made easier.

II. The Reasons For Using Songs By Demonstrating Their Effectiveness As A Learning Tool.
A. Theoretical Rationale
A large amount of literature, which discusses the value of using song, is not empirically based. However, based upon teacher experience, the first hand knowledge of what actually occurs in a language classroom is, in fact, very valuable. The first step in developing a theoretical rationale for using songs in the classroom is to label the types of listening processes and then identify the reasons teachers and researchers provide. From here, we can see that the teachers' motives are actually grounded in theory. Patterns emerge from the literature as to why teachers and researchers find using songs valuable. These patterns include affective reasons, cognitive reasons, and linguistic reasons.

There are two processes involved in listening, and both can be utilized when songs are used in the classroom. The activity that is selected for a particular song will determine which of these processes is active. Cullen (1999) states that:
1. Bottom-up processing where the listener builds up the sounds into words, sentences and meaning.
2. Top-down processing where the listener uses background knowledge to understand the meaning of a message. Practicing both of these processes is essential for developing listening comprehension.

The affective, cognitive, and linguistic reasons for using songs which follow, are all grounded in learning theory, and provide insights into the benefits of songs in the classroom.

B. Affective Reasons

The Affective Filter Hypothesis is one of five proposed hypotheses developed by Steven Krashen. Basically, it is an explanation of how the affective factors relate to language learning. It is particularly appealing to teachers because it provides an explanation to why some learners learn and others do not.

Teachers have long recognized the need for students to have a positive attitude in regard to learning. Krashen explains that for optimal learning to occur the affective filter must be weak. A weak affective filter means that a positive attitude towards learning is present. If the affective filter is strong the learner will not seek language input, and in turn, not be open for language acquisition. The practical application of the Affective Filter Hypothesis is that teachers must provide a positive atmosphere conducive to language learning. Songs are one method for achieving a weak affective filter and promoting language learning.

With the affective filter weak, Saricoban and Metin (2000) have found that songs can develop the four skill areas of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Eken (1996, p.46) states that songs can be used:

• To present a topic, a language point, lexis, etc.
• To practice a language point, lexis, etc.  
• To focus on common learner errors in a more direct way  
• To encourage extensive and intensive listening  
• To stimulate discussion of attitudes and feelings  
• To encourage creativity and use of imagination  
• To provide a relaxed classroom atmosphere  
• To bring variety and fun to learning

Lo and Li (1998) offer similar suggestions, writing that songs provide a break from classroom routine, and that learning English through songs develops a non-threatening classroom atmosphere in which the four language skills can be enhanced. The belief that songs provide enjoyment and develop language skills is also noted by several other authors (Adamowski, 1997; Bechtold, 1983; Domoney & Harris, 1993; Griffee, 1992; Guglielmino, 1986; Lems, 1984; Little, 1983; Monreal, 1982). The enjoyment aspect of learning language through song is directly related to affective factors.

C. Cognitive Reasons
Songs also present opportunities for developing automaticity that is the main cognitive reason for using songs in the classroom. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988, p.473) define automatist as "a component of language fluency which involves both knowing what to say and producing language rapidly without pauses." Using songs can help automatist the language development process. Traditionally, it was believed that autoimmunization would occur through repetitive exercises in a non-communicative environment. However, the major shift towards the communicative teaching methodology requires that autoimmunization occur in a different manner. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988, p.476) state that we must "place students in an environment in which it is appropriate to use target utterances in a genuinely communicative fashion." The nature of songs is fairly repetitive and consistent. For example, a song such as "Sailing" by Rod Stewart provides ample opportunities for students to focus on the present progressive tense. The repetitive style of the song lends itself to an activity in which students create their own present progressive sentences based upon their own interest. After listening to the song, students create their own lyrics following the same tune as the song. Lyrics such as: I am writing, I am writing, in my notebook with my friends, are common examples of the type of language that students produce.

D. Linguistic ReasonsBesides autoimmunization, there is also a linguistic reason for using songs in the classroom. Some songs are excellent examples of colloquial English, that is, the language of informal conversation. A song such as "My Best Was Never Good Enough" by Bruce Springsteen is a prime example of a song that demonstrates colloquial language use. This song is full of phrases like "Every cloud has a silver lining." and "Every dog has his day. " Of course, the majority of language most ESL students will encounter is in fact informal. Using songs can prepare students for the genuine language they will be faced with.

Finally, two studies, Domoney and Harris (1993) and Little (1983) investigated the prevalence of pop music in the lives of EFL students. Both studies found that music is often the major source of English outside of the classroom. The exposure to authentic English is an important factor in promoting language learning. It relates directly to both the affective filter and automatist. If students are exposed to songs that they enjoy, more learning is likely to occur since they may seek out the music outside of the classroom. The repetitive style of songs then helps to promote autoimmunization of colloquial language.

III. Closure

As demonstrated, the three theoretical reasons are all intertwined and help to demonstrate the value of using songs in the classroom. The next step in the procedure is to successfully integrate the songs into a language lesson. Because of the Internet, access to music, lyrics, and activities has been simplified which makes it easy for the teacher to effectively use songs in the classroom.

Bibliography
Alwasilah. 1985. Sosiologi Bahasa. Bandung: Angkasa Bandung
Cristal, david. 1987. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. USA: Cambridge University Press
Cullen. 1999. Song In the ESL / EFL Classroom. London: Rotledge
Gugliemino. 1986. The Students Handbook of Modern English. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia
John. L. 1991. Introduction to Theorical Linguistic. Cambridge: University Press
Krashen, Steven. 1996. Language Development. New York: State University of New York.
Saricoban and Metin. 2000. Affective Filter of Language. England: Penguin Books
Widarso, Wisnubroto. 1989. Bahasa Inggris, Dialek, Ragam, Jargon, Slang, Blend, Clipped Words. Yogyakarta: Kanisisus

Method of Memorizing

A. Effective memorizing.

Lots of the student could not memorize well. Their efforts require a lot of time and hard work, meanwhile what they have done easily erasable. Those are due to carelessness to the followings:

1. Intention.

a. Short term: pass the final exam and having good grade.

b. Long term: enhance the knowledge to have better future.

2. Comprehension.

This is the first step in memorizing. The student has to fully pay attention to the material during the input processes therefore the material will remain and steady

3. Interest

There must be something hard to understand in learning, thus we should try to understand the material by ourselves at first before memorizing. We can look at some reference in the library, hold discussion with our mate, ask to the assistant of lecturer etc. Don’t be hesitate to ask, asking does not reflect your lack but indicate your interest and desire to step forward

4. Intelligence quotation

Particular student has his own capacity to absorb and realize the lesson. Therefore we should not memorize all the material zip though a test, yet far beyond. Each student has to manage the time to memorize the material periodically and adjust the quantity as his own capacity.

B. How to improve the memory

Prof. Weinland suggested, when we attempt to memorize, it prefer done at night before go to bed and repeat it in the morning.

C. Method of memorizing

The best method depends on the material, the short list is as the following:

1. Memorizing through gaze of eyes.

The material needs deeply understanding. Hook each sentence into the other one meanwhile the brain is memorizing what about to see.

2. Memorizing through earning.

The material is a definition or main topic, which needs certain words. Here we have to read aloud, the voice is caught by ear, uttered in mind and then we can recall it in another time and correctly pronounce it

3. Memorizing through hands activation

The material is a chart, graphic, map, picture, formula, or anything unshaped of word. We can use pencil and sheet of paper therefore we can check the mistakes easily

4. Memorizing through uttering

We explain what we have learned to our friends. This is the most effective method to remain the memory.

Language Testing of Listening

I. Fore word

Testing is an inseparable part in the process of teaching and learning, including language. Training student to become teachers of language also means equipping them with necessary knowledge about and skills in measuring the effectiveness of educational undertakings. Testing places itself in this connection. The testing of English as a foreign language is as important as the methodology of teaching it, the skills and the language corpus being transferred to the learners. The area of testing needs the same attention by both teacher trainers and students.

The reason for testing are described first in order to lay a foundation for further discussion on this matter. Quizzes are touched upon along with the examination of the broad classification of testing types for different purposes. As teachers are expected to design a good test, they must be familiar with the requirement that make a test a good test.

In addition to the traditional division of language test formats according to levels of bias in scoring – objectives, semi-objective, and subjective – new approaches have been stimulus versus response formats. These dichotomous dimensions will even widen the student’s sphere of knowledge on this area and are intended to cater various interest of the teacher as a tester. However, detailed descriptions on the design of each format, which are basically derived from traditional practices, have not been abandoned, due to their significant contributions to the area. This again, enhances the knowledge.

Some old types have been reappearing and have proven to be similarly effective in their measuring capability for certain purposes. This paper is basically an attempt to meet the need for wider sources of information on language testing. It is intended for classroom use in order to supply materials that are readable for students and for reading assignment.

II. Requirements in Preparing and Using Foreign Language Tests

A. Validity
Test validity is the most crucial factor in the foreign language testing. A test is valid when it measures effectively what is intended to measure, whether it is be achievement, proficiency, or aptitude in the language. A test may be designed to measure the integrative abilities or discrete items within the subsystems of a language. But, for example, if a test is designed to measure reading comprehension, it must do exactly this and not attempt to measure another skill such as aural – oral comprehension. If a test is intended to measure one’s speaking skill, it is valid only if it tests his / her speaking ability.

In order to achieve validity, the test components and items must have a close relationship with what is tested. Two questions must be considered when determining test validity of a foreign language; what aspects of the language is the test design to measure, and how well does it measure?

The validity of a language test is determined by comparing the result it gives with some outside or independent criterion. Here are five validity concepts
a. Content validity
Content validity is examined by checking all items in the test to make certain that they correspond to the instructional objectives of the course, whether they are be discrete or integrative language skill.

b. Concurrent validity
A procedure for examining concurrent validity could follow the following pattern: a new language test is administered to students in the course and scores are recorded for each student.

c. Predictive validity
Predictive validity is used extensively in the validation of language aptitude tests. It is determined by (a) administering the test to a group of prospective students, (b) following their progress in their language courses, (c) obtaining data about each of them, then (d) computing the correlation coefficient between the aptitude test scores and the criterion grades or data.

d. Construct validity
Construct validity is less important in the achievement tests, but this validation should be extensively used in aptitude and proficiency test.

B. Reliability

The reliability or consistency of a test is the degree to which the test can be trusted to produce the same results when the test is administrated at different time by an individual. It is different from validity in that it concerns about the dependability of a test, rather than whether it measures what is intended to measure. Thus, to be reliable a test must be consistent in giving a result over a period of time. If a test gives almost identical results or scores each time it is administered to the same group, we can say that the test is highly reliable. When it gives significantly different result, the test is unreliable.

There are several external factors affecting the reliability of a test; variations in testing conditions (lighting, temperature, noise, and other distractions); test compromise (i.e., the students knew the questions / answers before hand); inaccuracy in scoring; inadequate sampling of test items; lack of motivation; fatigue or illness. Those factors decrease the reliability of the test.

On the other hand, these factors can improve the reliability of a test; making the test conditions constant; using the same procedure in administering the test; increasing the number of test items; giving adequate sampling of test items; and reducing the subjective scoring.

A test that is reliable is not necessarily valid. A test intended to test the native English speakers for reading comprehension of the Indonesian language may give the same result when given to the native Indonesians, but will show low validity when used to measure the writing ability of English speakers. A language test may have both high reliability and low validity.

Increasing the length of a test will increase its reliability. For a multiple-choice test, the number of choices will influence its reliability. For a better examination of reliability, two methods should be used, one being a check against the other.

C. Comprehensiveness

A test is comprehensive when it contains items from all aspects of the materials to be tested. An achievement test, for example, should contain all the objectives that should have been achieved by the time of testing. It is recommended that the number of items be in proportion to the importance of language being tested, or to the proportion of the problem areas of the students. For a phase test or end-of-semester test, approximately sixty questions can be considered the minimum number required to provide valid reliable scores. For a proficiency test used for screening purpose of for obtaining a comprehensive measure of the examinee’s mastery of language, the number of questions should be about twice as great, approximately 100 to 120 items.

It has been shown by experiments that when a test is too long, there are problems of administration, economy, and fatigue which destroy the test utility. On the other hand, a test which is too short gives problems of compromise, doubtful reliability, and lack of comprehensiveness.

In preparing a test, the examiner should make sure that the test items are representative, comprehensive, and related to the objectives of the course or to the purpose for which the test is intended.

D. Practicality

Practicality is also as important factor in the design of a test, in addition in validity, reliability, and comprehensiveness. It is important when the test is used in large quantities for placement, selection, certification, or classroom use. The criteria for practicality are based on such factors as economy, scorability, and administrability.

III. Listening Comprehension Format

Test of listening skills are perhaps among the easiest to prepare by using simulated communication. They are based on a passage, read either once or twice, depending on the level of difficulty of the passage and on the short-term memory load associated with the task. The goal of this test should be the comprehension of language used in communication context. For the beginning students, the passage should be short and simplified.

It is advisable to provide a second reading of the passage for beginners, and when they have progress, repetition of listening passages may be eliminated.

A. Grammatical and Lexical Cues

A passage is read and the student is required to listen for specific lexical or grammatical embedded in the selection. Some sample grammatical features might include listening for cues to tense, gender, number, etc.

Imagine you are sitting in the café in Los Angeles and are hearing a conversation. Can you tell whether the speakers are talking about present or past events? Listen carefully for the verbs in the conversation. If you hear a verb in the past, mark column A. If you hear a verb in the present, mark column B. There are X verbs in the conversation.

The conversations in read or played on a tape, and a given number of verbs are embedded, either in the present or past. It is then read or played once. Then each sentence is read individually and students mark the appropriate column for each verb they hear.

B. Recording Semantic Details
A passage is read and the student takes notes on specific semantic information in the native language, follows a map or diagram, responds to prepared questions in the native language, or fills in an incomplete chart, schedule, table, or other type of form provided on the test paper.

Listening items of this type still require students to listen for specific details, but the details recorded are semantic, rather than syntactic.

C. Comprehension Question
A passage is read and the student answers a set of true / false, MC, or short-answer / completion questions (in English) on the passage content or in inferences.

D. Native Language Summary
A passage is read and the student writes a summary of the message content in the native language. Items of this type allow students somewhat more freedom in answering, since they can select whatever information they wish to include in their resumes. Points can be awarded for each piece of information remembered correctly.

E. Global Classification
A passage is read and the student writes or chooses from several options an appropriate title, creates of chooses form options the best “moral” of the story or summary of the main idea, or classifies the passage type in some other global way.

F. Identifying Socio Linguistic Factors
A statement is read, and the student must indicate in Indonesian and understanding of the socio linguistic context in which such a statement might be.

IV. Bibliography

Abbott, G. & P. Wingard. 1985. The Teaching of English as an International Language: A Practical Guide. London: Great Britain
Austin S. 1970. Speaking & Listening: A Contemporary Approach. USA: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Carroll E. R. 1969. The Learning of Language. New York: National Council of Teachers of English Publication.
Celce A, Murcia, M. & L. mcIntosh. 1979. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.
Fox J. W. 1974. Teaching Listening Skills. English Teaching Forum. October - December, 12
Joiner, E. 1977. Communicative Activities for Beginning Language Students. English Teaching Forum, April, 15
Pirenomulyo. 1987. Language Testing. Salatiga: English Department Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana.
Yagang, F. 1993. Listening: Problems and Solutions. English Teaching Forum, January 31

English and Advertising

I. Introduction

Language is something that only human being posses in the world and is a unique characteristic of “Homo Sapiens”, since only human beings speak a language whereas other animals do not. Thus, language is considered as a criterion that is used to identify human beings, who are therefore also called “Homo Loquens”. It can be concluded that man is most clearly different from other species not only by his faculty of thought and intelligence, but also his capacity for language. The two are, in fact, very closely related to each other.

Language is a mean of communication in human life. Language has an important meaning in society and its surrounding. By using language, people are able to express their idea and feeling. Each language has its own characteristic. It is a system of arbitrary from vocal symbol where human being uses for their communication. The most important inevitable thing when we are talking about a language is a sentence. Of course, the sentence here always has rules. The rules of each language are different from other.

English is one important language used by people all over the word because it is an international language. For example, to make communication for international cooperation in some fields with other countries in the same world, we need it. In almost every country in the world, English is taught in school as major, second, or foreign language.

English also varies the advertising language both sound and written. We can see it in TV, listen it in Radio, and find it in the billboard along the road. The language is simple and easy but sometimes it is difficult to understand it. It requires special level of attention, knowledge of the word and processing abilities.
 

II. Analysis

Since the visual image is present, people at last understand the content of communication. Advertising always present, something that is new and innovation. Since language may be viewed as something abstract and message can be encoded in sound and writing. In principle the study at the level of expression will extend to both writing system and sound system.

The aspect of the creative use of language is ability of every speech community to create new vocabulary of the language. Language is not only as verbal communication, forming human civilization, but as “Lingua Franca”. Such as advertising language is simple and qualified. Language is used as business media, offers the product and makes network widely. The advertising language is made to persuade, inform and offer the items-whereas advertising is usually simple, easy to recall but occasionally unconcern with the word choice, syntax or uses form of sentence, concept of syntactical, grammatical, concord, sentence fragment and parallel sentence. The principle is to expand a market, in commercial enter price.

Language is a medium to offer items or services. It means people use language ability to persuade the customer in order to buy their product to be permanent customer or to use their services. Although, there are truths, untruths. Aspects in offering their product, basically the characters of human language contain truth and untruth. (Nababan. P. W. J. 1993. ”Socio linguistic Suatu Pengantar”. PT. Gramedia Utama. 1993; Page 53)

1. The definition of advertising
An advertising is the non personal communication or information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services, or idea by identified sponsors through the various media. (Bovel and Arens. 1986. “Advertising”. USA Richard D. Irwin. Inc.)

2. The function of advertising
According to Boove and Arens (1986: 8-9) advertising has many function :
a. To identify differentiate products from others
b. To communicate information about the product, its features, and its location of sale
c. To induce consumer to try new product and suggest reuse
d. To build brand preference and loyalty

Some assumption which advertiser holds about their audience, especially their level of attention, knowledge of the word and processing abilities. Advertisers do not take it for granted that audiences have a high attention level, the use non-linguistic and linguistic devices to draw their attention.

3. English in advertising
The use of language as commerce may find out direct on symbol recall of a product. The advertiser’s goal is to make customers recall easily those products than other certain products. When people hear expression “Connecting People” their memory concerns on mark one of hand phone spontaneously, which is familiar around us. The other word is such as “Attack”, this sentence is to a battlefield, but truly, it is name of detergent as a cleaner possible form the dirty, dirty on the clothes will be lost by attack. It is not surprising if the meaning in dictionary is different from the meaning of the copywriter.

The word “Fire”! is the symbol from Ardiles. The word “Fire”! according to dictionary is noun which describe fire. What is the relation between fire and shoes, any message between on live from the copywriter is that, when wear those shoes, our step is like fire, which always becomes the winner among the other business, study and the other activity. The other symbol of products “The Fearless Energy Drink” from Hemaviton, message the symbol of powerful and fresh of the body.

The other reason on why their product uses English, it can be interpreted that,
When the customer uses that product, it would be more prestigious in society and be included as educated people. (Chaedar, Abdul. 1992. “Socio linguistic”. Rineka Cipta. 1992; Page 10)

4. Language register in advertising
In the study of language varieties, register is another complicating factor. It is a set of language items associated with discrete occupational or social groups.

Register has important role in society. Register raise in order to persuade people to watch or to follow the effective communication. It can share more information about the specific purpose on several groups. Pateda, in Ida Rachmawati, classifies the function of register into 5, namely:
a. Intimate, it is used in family atmosphere
b. Casual, it is used to omit misunderstanding in communication
c. Deliberative or formal, it is used by speaker to broader conversation
d. Oratorical or frozen which is used by professional speaker to attract the listener.
e. Consultative, it is usually used to make an agreement. It is occurred in trade transaction, and typically dialogues
(Ida Rachmawati. “A Descriptive Analysis of The Register used by midwives in Obsgyn’s BPRSUD Salatiga. Reserch Paper. Page 16-17)

Register is used by a certain group of people as an emergence medium to express their idea or feeling. In short we can divide register into 2 forms:
a. Word: simple word, clipped form, blend, acronyms, coinage, and abbreviation.
b. Phrase: noun phrase, verb phrase

5. The relation of meaning in advertising
Language, like other forms of social activity has to be appropriate to the speaker using it. It is complex and unique. Each language has its own forms, including grammar and structure.

When a message is transferred from a certain language into others, the changes in its linguistic form arise. Translation means not only transferring words from certain language into another but also transferring the structure of the source in order to obtain an appropriate message. Language is not only a means of communicating information. It is also a very important means of establishing and maintaining relationship with other people (Peter Trudgill. 1994. “Socio Linguistic: An Introduction to Language and Society”. 1994. Page 13)

Translation requires an adequate command of both languages. One thing should be considered in discussing structure is its cynical aspect. One cannot possibly make a good sentence only with a wide range of words or vocabularies that he masters. He should employ the grammatical and structural devices to express what exactly he means. Therefore we cannot ignore structure as well as vocabulary especially in translation in which we deal with, two different sets of grammatical and structural device, and different cultures.

A language may be viewed simple as a means of imparting information, without undue concern for the distinction between the written and oral forms (Morris B. A. 1954. “The Art of Teaching English As a Living Language”. London Macmillian & Co. Ltd. 1954. Page 7)

When words are combined in a meaningful arrangement or pattern, communication take place. (Warriner E. J. 1982. “English Grammar and Composition”. United States of America. Harcourt Bravejovanovich. 1982. page 3)

In the register term, the meaning clarification takes the important roles. Each register produced by human being has its own meaning. The meaning is usually studied in the semantic. Therefore, Cann, in Eko Yunianto, holds that semantic is the study of meaning expressed by words, phrases, or sentences of human language (Eko Yunianto. “A Socio linguistic Analysis of Register Used By A Group of Transsexual in Solo”. Research Paper. Page 10)

The system of meaning is the important aspect of the language in communication. In some case however, it seem difficult to convey message because in some terms, registers have different interpretation by other. It is also concern with the context and the doer uses the register.

Larson, in Eko Yunianto, states that the meaning can be classified into 4, namely:
1. Grammatical meaning has 2 definitions involving the meaning express by grammatical ending, word order, or intonation and the part of meanings which varies from one form of paradigms to the other.
2. Lexical meaning is the meaning that is given by dictionary
3. Textual meaning is the meaning that is acquired from the relationship between one word to another in sentence.
4. Contextual or situational meaning is the meaning that raises from the situation or context.

III. Closure

In every day life, language plays an important role in communication. People express their idea, feeling, and intention with language. They read newspaper, watch TV, listen to the radio, think, plan, and write with the help of language. In short, language is the main tool of communication.

In their communication to a particular person (a group of people) the communication sometimes does not only use standard language which is easy to be understood by other people but also a register which is clearly understood by a particular group. To make communication fluent, people also need to know register of particular field which they frequently use in their communication.

Advertising language can be encoded in sound and writing. Its language sometimes is unconcern with the word choice, syntax or uses form of sentence, concept of syntactical, grammatical, concord, sentence fragment and parallel sentence. The principle is to expand a market, in commercial enter price.

The system of meaning is the important aspect of the language in communication. In some case however, it seem difficult to convey message because in some terms, registers have different interpretation by other. It is also concern with the context and the doer uses the register.

Thus the way to understand the advertising language is to use contextual language

IV. References

Bovel and Arens. 1986. Advertising. USA : Richard D. Irwin. Inc.
Chaedar, Abdul. 1992. Socio linguistic. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta.
Nababan. P. W. J. 1993. Socio linguistic Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta : PT. Gramedia Utama.
Oxford University Press. 1991. Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford University.
Peter Trudgill. 1994. Socio Linguistic: An Introduction to Language and Society.Morris B. A. 1954. The Art of Teaching English As a Living Language. London: Macmillian & Co. Ltd.
Warriner E. J. 1982. English Grammar and Composition. United States of America: Harcourt Bravejovanovich.
Ida Rachmawati. A Descriptive Analysis of The Register used by midwives in Obsgyn’s BPRSUD Salatiga. Reserch Paper.
Eko Yunianto. A Socio linguistic Analysis of Register Used By A Group of Transsexual in Solo. Research Paper.