I. Fore word
Testing is an inseparable part in the process of teaching and learning, including language. Training student to become teachers of language also means equipping them with necessary knowledge about and skills in measuring the effectiveness of educational undertakings. Testing places itself in this connection. The testing of English as a foreign language is as important as the methodology of teaching it, the skills and the language corpus being transferred to the learners. The area of testing needs the same attention by both teacher trainers and students.
The reason for testing are described first in order to lay a foundation for further discussion on this matter. Quizzes are touched upon along with the examination of the broad classification of testing types for different purposes. As teachers are expected to design a good test, they must be familiar with the requirement that make a test a good test.
In addition to the traditional division of language test formats according to levels of bias in scoring – objectives, semi-objective, and subjective – new approaches have been stimulus versus response formats. These dichotomous dimensions will even widen the student’s sphere of knowledge on this area and are intended to cater various interest of the teacher as a tester. However, detailed descriptions on the design of each format, which are basically derived from traditional practices, have not been abandoned, due to their significant contributions to the area. This again, enhances the knowledge.
Some old types have been reappearing and have proven to be similarly effective in their measuring capability for certain purposes. This paper is basically an attempt to meet the need for wider sources of information on language testing. It is intended for classroom use in order to supply materials that are readable for students and for reading assignment.
II. Requirements in Preparing and Using Foreign Language Tests
A. Validity
Test validity is the most crucial factor in the foreign language testing. A test is valid when it measures effectively what is intended to measure, whether it is be achievement, proficiency, or aptitude in the language. A test may be designed to measure the integrative abilities or discrete items within the subsystems of a language. But, for example, if a test is designed to measure reading comprehension, it must do exactly this and not attempt to measure another skill such as aural – oral comprehension. If a test is intended to measure one’s speaking skill, it is valid only if it tests his / her speaking ability.
In order to achieve validity, the test components and items must have a close relationship with what is tested. Two questions must be considered when determining test validity of a foreign language; what aspects of the language is the test design to measure, and how well does it measure?
The validity of a language test is determined by comparing the result it gives with some outside or independent criterion. Here are five validity concepts
a. Content validity
Content validity is examined by checking all items in the test to make certain that they correspond to the instructional objectives of the course, whether they are be discrete or integrative language skill.
b. Concurrent validity
A procedure for examining concurrent validity could follow the following pattern: a new language test is administered to students in the course and scores are recorded for each student.
c. Predictive validity
Predictive validity is used extensively in the validation of language aptitude tests. It is determined by (a) administering the test to a group of prospective students, (b) following their progress in their language courses, (c) obtaining data about each of them, then (d) computing the correlation coefficient between the aptitude test scores and the criterion grades or data.
d. Construct validity
Construct validity is less important in the achievement tests, but this validation should be extensively used in aptitude and proficiency test.
B. Reliability
The reliability or consistency of a test is the degree to which the test can be trusted to produce the same results when the test is administrated at different time by an individual. It is different from validity in that it concerns about the dependability of a test, rather than whether it measures what is intended to measure. Thus, to be reliable a test must be consistent in giving a result over a period of time. If a test gives almost identical results or scores each time it is administered to the same group, we can say that the test is highly reliable. When it gives significantly different result, the test is unreliable.
There are several external factors affecting the reliability of a test; variations in testing conditions (lighting, temperature, noise, and other distractions); test compromise (i.e., the students knew the questions / answers before hand); inaccuracy in scoring; inadequate sampling of test items; lack of motivation; fatigue or illness. Those factors decrease the reliability of the test.
On the other hand, these factors can improve the reliability of a test; making the test conditions constant; using the same procedure in administering the test; increasing the number of test items; giving adequate sampling of test items; and reducing the subjective scoring.
A test that is reliable is not necessarily valid. A test intended to test the native English speakers for reading comprehension of the Indonesian language may give the same result when given to the native Indonesians, but will show low validity when used to measure the writing ability of English speakers. A language test may have both high reliability and low validity.
Increasing the length of a test will increase its reliability. For a multiple-choice test, the number of choices will influence its reliability. For a better examination of reliability, two methods should be used, one being a check against the other.
C. Comprehensiveness
A test is comprehensive when it contains items from all aspects of the materials to be tested. An achievement test, for example, should contain all the objectives that should have been achieved by the time of testing. It is recommended that the number of items be in proportion to the importance of language being tested, or to the proportion of the problem areas of the students. For a phase test or end-of-semester test, approximately sixty questions can be considered the minimum number required to provide valid reliable scores. For a proficiency test used for screening purpose of for obtaining a comprehensive measure of the examinee’s mastery of language, the number of questions should be about twice as great, approximately 100 to 120 items.
It has been shown by experiments that when a test is too long, there are problems of administration, economy, and fatigue which destroy the test utility. On the other hand, a test which is too short gives problems of compromise, doubtful reliability, and lack of comprehensiveness.
In preparing a test, the examiner should make sure that the test items are representative, comprehensive, and related to the objectives of the course or to the purpose for which the test is intended.
D. Practicality
Practicality is also as important factor in the design of a test, in addition in validity, reliability, and comprehensiveness. It is important when the test is used in large quantities for placement, selection, certification, or classroom use. The criteria for practicality are based on such factors as economy, scorability, and administrability.
III. Listening Comprehension Format
Test of listening skills are perhaps among the easiest to prepare by using simulated communication. They are based on a passage, read either once or twice, depending on the level of difficulty of the passage and on the short-term memory load associated with the task. The goal of this test should be the comprehension of language used in communication context. For the beginning students, the passage should be short and simplified.
It is advisable to provide a second reading of the passage for beginners, and when they have progress, repetition of listening passages may be eliminated.
A. Grammatical and Lexical Cues
A passage is read and the student is required to listen for specific lexical or grammatical embedded in the selection. Some sample grammatical features might include listening for cues to tense, gender, number, etc.
Imagine you are sitting in the café in Los Angeles and are hearing a conversation. Can you tell whether the speakers are talking about present or past events? Listen carefully for the verbs in the conversation. If you hear a verb in the past, mark column A. If you hear a verb in the present, mark column B. There are X verbs in the conversation.
The conversations in read or played on a tape, and a given number of verbs are embedded, either in the present or past. It is then read or played once. Then each sentence is read individually and students mark the appropriate column for each verb they hear.
B. Recording Semantic Details
A passage is read and the student takes notes on specific semantic information in the native language, follows a map or diagram, responds to prepared questions in the native language, or fills in an incomplete chart, schedule, table, or other type of form provided on the test paper.
Listening items of this type still require students to listen for specific details, but the details recorded are semantic, rather than syntactic.
C. Comprehension Question
A passage is read and the student answers a set of true / false, MC, or short-answer / completion questions (in English) on the passage content or in inferences.
D. Native Language Summary
A passage is read and the student writes a summary of the message content in the native language. Items of this type allow students somewhat more freedom in answering, since they can select whatever information they wish to include in their resumes. Points can be awarded for each piece of information remembered correctly.
E. Global Classification
A passage is read and the student writes or chooses from several options an appropriate title, creates of chooses form options the best “moral” of the story or summary of the main idea, or classifies the passage type in some other global way.
A procedure for examining concurrent validity could follow the following pattern: a new language test is administered to students in the course and scores are recorded for each student.
c. Predictive validity
Predictive validity is used extensively in the validation of language aptitude tests. It is determined by (a) administering the test to a group of prospective students, (b) following their progress in their language courses, (c) obtaining data about each of them, then (d) computing the correlation coefficient between the aptitude test scores and the criterion grades or data.
d. Construct validity
Construct validity is less important in the achievement tests, but this validation should be extensively used in aptitude and proficiency test.
B. Reliability
The reliability or consistency of a test is the degree to which the test can be trusted to produce the same results when the test is administrated at different time by an individual. It is different from validity in that it concerns about the dependability of a test, rather than whether it measures what is intended to measure. Thus, to be reliable a test must be consistent in giving a result over a period of time. If a test gives almost identical results or scores each time it is administered to the same group, we can say that the test is highly reliable. When it gives significantly different result, the test is unreliable.
There are several external factors affecting the reliability of a test; variations in testing conditions (lighting, temperature, noise, and other distractions); test compromise (i.e., the students knew the questions / answers before hand); inaccuracy in scoring; inadequate sampling of test items; lack of motivation; fatigue or illness. Those factors decrease the reliability of the test.
On the other hand, these factors can improve the reliability of a test; making the test conditions constant; using the same procedure in administering the test; increasing the number of test items; giving adequate sampling of test items; and reducing the subjective scoring.
A test that is reliable is not necessarily valid. A test intended to test the native English speakers for reading comprehension of the Indonesian language may give the same result when given to the native Indonesians, but will show low validity when used to measure the writing ability of English speakers. A language test may have both high reliability and low validity.
Increasing the length of a test will increase its reliability. For a multiple-choice test, the number of choices will influence its reliability. For a better examination of reliability, two methods should be used, one being a check against the other.
C. Comprehensiveness
A test is comprehensive when it contains items from all aspects of the materials to be tested. An achievement test, for example, should contain all the objectives that should have been achieved by the time of testing. It is recommended that the number of items be in proportion to the importance of language being tested, or to the proportion of the problem areas of the students. For a phase test or end-of-semester test, approximately sixty questions can be considered the minimum number required to provide valid reliable scores. For a proficiency test used for screening purpose of for obtaining a comprehensive measure of the examinee’s mastery of language, the number of questions should be about twice as great, approximately 100 to 120 items.
It has been shown by experiments that when a test is too long, there are problems of administration, economy, and fatigue which destroy the test utility. On the other hand, a test which is too short gives problems of compromise, doubtful reliability, and lack of comprehensiveness.
In preparing a test, the examiner should make sure that the test items are representative, comprehensive, and related to the objectives of the course or to the purpose for which the test is intended.
D. Practicality
Practicality is also as important factor in the design of a test, in addition in validity, reliability, and comprehensiveness. It is important when the test is used in large quantities for placement, selection, certification, or classroom use. The criteria for practicality are based on such factors as economy, scorability, and administrability.
III. Listening Comprehension Format
Test of listening skills are perhaps among the easiest to prepare by using simulated communication. They are based on a passage, read either once or twice, depending on the level of difficulty of the passage and on the short-term memory load associated with the task. The goal of this test should be the comprehension of language used in communication context. For the beginning students, the passage should be short and simplified.
It is advisable to provide a second reading of the passage for beginners, and when they have progress, repetition of listening passages may be eliminated.
A. Grammatical and Lexical Cues
A passage is read and the student is required to listen for specific lexical or grammatical embedded in the selection. Some sample grammatical features might include listening for cues to tense, gender, number, etc.
Imagine you are sitting in the café in Los Angeles and are hearing a conversation. Can you tell whether the speakers are talking about present or past events? Listen carefully for the verbs in the conversation. If you hear a verb in the past, mark column A. If you hear a verb in the present, mark column B. There are X verbs in the conversation.
The conversations in read or played on a tape, and a given number of verbs are embedded, either in the present or past. It is then read or played once. Then each sentence is read individually and students mark the appropriate column for each verb they hear.
B. Recording Semantic Details
A passage is read and the student takes notes on specific semantic information in the native language, follows a map or diagram, responds to prepared questions in the native language, or fills in an incomplete chart, schedule, table, or other type of form provided on the test paper.
Listening items of this type still require students to listen for specific details, but the details recorded are semantic, rather than syntactic.
C. Comprehension Question
A passage is read and the student answers a set of true / false, MC, or short-answer / completion questions (in English) on the passage content or in inferences.
D. Native Language Summary
A passage is read and the student writes a summary of the message content in the native language. Items of this type allow students somewhat more freedom in answering, since they can select whatever information they wish to include in their resumes. Points can be awarded for each piece of information remembered correctly.
E. Global Classification
A passage is read and the student writes or chooses from several options an appropriate title, creates of chooses form options the best “moral” of the story or summary of the main idea, or classifies the passage type in some other global way.
F. Identifying Socio Linguistic Factors
A statement is read, and the student must indicate in Indonesian and understanding of the socio linguistic context in which such a statement might be.
IV. Bibliography
Abbott, G. & P. Wingard. 1985. The Teaching of English as an International Language: A Practical Guide. London: Great Britain
Austin S. 1970. Speaking & Listening: A Contemporary Approach. USA: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Carroll E. R. 1969. The Learning of Language. New York: National Council of Teachers of English Publication.
Celce A, Murcia, M. & L. mcIntosh. 1979. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.
Fox J. W. 1974. Teaching Listening Skills. English Teaching Forum. October - December, 12
Joiner, E. 1977. Communicative Activities for Beginning Language Students. English Teaching Forum, April, 15
Pirenomulyo. 1987. Language Testing. Salatiga: English Department Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana.
Yagang, F. 1993. Listening: Problems and Solutions. English Teaching Forum, January 31
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